“The findings for girls were different,” said Jennifer Engle, lead author of the study. “Overall, teachers reported that girls in the first and third grade had good social skills, regardless of the quality of their kindergarten friendships. Boys, on the other hand, clearly benefited from the good start that early high-quality friendships provide.”

Engle said the study was unique in comparing how the presence and quality of children’s kindergarten friendships are related to their behavior problems and social skills in kindergarten, first, and third grades.

She noted that friendship quality was important for both boys and girls in kindergarten. Kindergarten kids with high-quality friendships tended to have fewer behavior problems and better social skills than those whose friendships were of low or moderate quality. In contrast, kids who had low-quality kindergarten friendships had more behavior problems during kindergarten.

The differences in friendship quality for boys versus girls didn’t show up until the children were older, she said.

“Boys who had no friends in kindergarten had more behavior problems, but not until they had reached first and third grades,” she said.

The researchers examined data from 567 children who had participated in the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health & Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development.

Mothers in the study reported on whether their kindergarten child had at least one friend and on the quality of their child’s friendships. Researchers then compared the progress of children with no friends, low-quality friendships, average-quality friendships, and high-quality friendships. Teachers provided feedback on children’s behavior problems in kindergarten and first and third grades.

“As we expected, high-quality kindergarten friendships that featured cooperation and sharing, taking turns, low levels of hostility, and little destructive conflict, gave children–especially boys–practice in positive interaction, which they demonstrated in grades 1 and 3,” Engle said.

How can you help your child learn to be a good friend? McElwain stressed that peers become important as children enter kindergarten. Parents should make an effort to help children, especially boys, make friends at this age through play dates and other social activities, she said.

Children also will likely relate to friends in more positive ways if they have experiences in their family that model positive expectations, caring, and respect.

When children learn to expect that people will respond positively to them, they will be responsive and friendly to others, she noted.

“Those children will be able to handle their emotions better when the going gets rough, and they’ll learn how to work through conflicts. Conflict isn’t necessarily good or bad; it’s a matter of how kids approach disagreements with their friends or parents,” she said.

McElwain offered reassurance to parents of friendless kindergartners. “Almost all of those children had made a friend by the time they reached third grade,” she said.

The U of I’s Nicole Lasky, now of Chicago’s Perspectives Charter School, is a co-author of the study.

Such research could promote a reorientation of child and human services toward investment and prevention, moving away from the current system that seeks to “treat” problems that develop later in life, according to the report.

But economic analysis of early childhood programs does not necessarily result in clear direction about what is the single best approach to any problem, according to researchers. Instead, economic research is more likely to highlight a spectrum of promising services and provide guidance about how to choose an optimal level of each program.

The RAND report is intended to provide policymakers with a primer about how economic analysis can help set agendas for early childhood policy and identify the economic benefits of targeting certain groups for help.

“Economic analysis increasingly plays a role in the debate on the merits of early childhood programs, but many people are unprepared to participate in the discussion,” said Rebecca Kilburn, the report’s lead author and an economist at RAND, a nonprofit research organization. “The report is intended to provide clarity and structure for making use of such research.”

Interest in using economics to help analyze early childhood policies has grown as business CEOs, Federal Reserve Bank analysts, and Nobel Prize-winning economists have called for increased public spending on early childhood programs.

Two overarching concepts from economic research have become important in discussions of early childhood policy — human capital theory and monetary “payoffs” from investments in early childhood programs.

Human capital theory is an economic model that provides a framework that brings together current thinking about early childhood policy, including the concept that later skills build on skills developed earlier in life. The theory accounts for such concepts as nature and nurture, and the idea that capabilities involve multiple dimensions.

Probably the most widely recognized intersection between economics and early childhood policy is in the analysis of the costs and benefits of early childhood programs such as home visiting and preschool. Such analysis typically compares the costs and benefits of early childhood programs to determine the “rate of return” the public will receive for money spent on such efforts.

A growing body of program evaluations shows that investments in early childhood programs can generate government savings by, for example, reducing the need to provide social services later in life or by improving individuals’ earnings, which then generates more tax revenue.

Kilburn and co-author Lynn Karoly write that an increasing body of knowledge has demonstrated how poorly U.S. children fare compared to their counterparts in other developed countries. Research has shown that U.S. babies increasingly are born with low birth weights, elementary-age children are overweight and asthmatic at growing rates, and more than 700,000 children spend time in foster care each year.

In addition, research from the fields of neuroscience, developmental psychology and program evaluation has shown how early experiences help determine how a person’s brain develops and that effective early intervention strategies can improve a wide range of outcomes from childhood through early adulthood.

While many studies have found that the cost of early childhood programs can produce long-term benefits that offset their costs, not every early childhood program does so, according to the RAND report.

In addition, researchers caution that evidence suggests that the returns from early childhood programs may decline under certain conditions. While monetary benefits can remain positive for universal programs, the rate of return may be higher when programs are targeted toward the groups likely to benefit from them the most, according to the report.

There also is recognition that the benefits from early childhood interventions may be tied to the quality of those interventions, but higher quality often costs more. Unless funding grows, researchers say, shifting toward higher quality may mean that fewer children can be served.

The study is entitled “The Economics of Early Childhood Policy: What the Dismal Science Has to Say About Investing in Children” and is available from the RAND website. Support for study was provided by Casey Family Programs.

In the study published June 9 in the journal Science, Reynolds and Temple (with co-authors Suh-Ruu Ou, Irma Arteaga, and Barry White) report on more than 1,400 individuals whose well-being has been tracked for as much as 25 years. Those who had participated in an early childhood program beginning at age 3 showed higher levels of educational attainment, socioeconomic status, job skills, and health insurance coverage as well as lower rates of substance abuse, felony arrest, and incarceration than those who received the usual early childhood services.

The research focused on participants in the Child-Parent Center Education Program (CPCEP), a publicly funded early childhood development program that begins in preschool and provides up to six years of service in the Chicago public schools. Through the Chicago Longitudinal Study (CLS), Reynolds and colleagues have studied the educational and social development of a same-age cohort of low-income, minority children (93 percent African American) who participated in this program. The CLS is one of the most extensive and comprehensive studies ever undertaken of young children’s learning. Reynolds and colleagues have reported on the Chicago individuals starting in preschool, then annually through the school-age years, and periodically through early adulthood.

The new paper reports on the sample participants at age 28, when they found the most positive outcomes among the 957 individuals who began services in preschool — especially males and children of high school drop outs. Positive effects also were found for the duration of services, those participating for 4 to 6 years from preschool to third grade. The control group of 529 included individuals of the same age who participated in alternative early childhood programs in randomly selected schools and who matched the program group on socioeconomic status. Among the major findings (preschool group compared to the control group, adjusted for sample attrition):

•        9 percent more completed high school; 19 percent more males
•        20 percent more achieved moderate or higher level of socioeconomic status
•        19 percent more carried some level of health insurance coverage
•        28 percent fewer abused drugs and alcohol; 21 percent fewer males alone
•        22 percent fewer had a felony arrest; the difference was 45 percent for children of high school dropouts
•        28 percent fewer had experienced incarceration or jail

Participants who participated in CPCEP for four to six years (preschool to third grade) compared to the control group receiving less than four years:

•        18 percent more achieved moderate or higher level of socioeconomic status
•        23 percent more had some level of private health insurance coverage
•        55 percent more achieved on-time high school graduation
•        36 percent fewer had been arrested for violence

“When you follow people for more than two decades, an understanding of how early experiences shape later development can be achieved,” Reynolds notes. “A chain of positive influences initiated by large advantages in school readiness and parent involvement leads to better school performance and enrollment in higher quality schools, and ultimately to higher educational attainment and socioeconomic status.”

Findings demonstrate that effects of sustained school-based early education can endure through the third decade of life. Previously, Reynolds and colleagues documented the cost benefits of early education, demonstrating an 18 percent annual return on investment for society. However, policy has yet to support the kind of early interventions needed to solve persistent societal issues.

“Unfortunately, we still spend very little on prevention,” says Reynolds. “Only 3 percent of the $14 billion dollars allocated to school districts to serve low-income children under Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act [No Child Left Behind] goes to preschool. Yet preschool programs are one of the most cost-effective of all social programs.”

He explains that since about half of the achievement gap between children from higher and lower economic statuses at age 10 already exists at age 5, education interventions need to start even earlier. “State and federal policies don’t reflect the knowledge of how much earlier these gaps appear, and therefore the need to start as early as possible,” he says.

Based on this and earlier studies, Reynolds and Temple say the key to CPC’s success lies in both the quality of the program and its teachers, the opportunity for more than one year of participation, small classes, comprehensive family services, structured activity-based curricula focusing on language and literacy, and attention to continuity of learning from preschool to the early school grades.

The study was funded by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.